The Development Of Cyber Stalking

The Development Of Cyber Stalking Stalking is a criminal act that occurs when the offender repeatedly imposes unwanted disturbances and communications to victims by using premeditation to the extent of provoking fear for their safety (Pathe Mullen, 1997). Oddly, at first these acts can be seen as kind towards the victim, from an observers point of view. For example, it does not appear to be threatening at all when someone leaves messages, sends gifts and shows up in places where the victim habitually hangs around (Purcell, Pathe Mullen, 2004). However, if a person is trying to build-up a relationship that another person does not want to experience, (such as with a former partner, a famous person, or a professional) this results in intimidation and is considered as stalking (Regehr, n.d.). Stalking varies from harassing and threatening victims by following and tracking them, appearing at their doorstep or workplace, collecting photos and or videos of the target, making unwanted phone calls, sending gifts, letters and e-mails, intercepting any mail, and vandalizing property. Unluckily in the worst of cases stalking includes the threatening of victims families and friends, physical assault, and the kidnapping and holding of hostages (Regehr, n.d.). With the advances in technology and innovative equipment that fills our daily lives, crime is infiltrating into society by using cyberspace. The traditional stalker is now a cyber-stalker and essentially his/her grounds are limitless. In addition, the stalker now has no face because the comfort of using Information Technology enables the criminal to quietly stay indoors and carry-on with ones crimes anonymously and at a low cost. Although cyber stalking still uses the harassment principles as in traditional stalking, their victims are now found online. The cyber stalker now uses emails, internet, and chat rooms as his/her hunting grounds (Thapa, Kumar, 2011) and the growing social networks which many users subscribe to such as Facebook are the sources of feed which stalkers are looking for (Regehr, n.d.). This ease of internet tools at disposal and the belief that cyber stalkers cannot be physically touched in cyberspace (Jaishankar Sankary, 2006) has increased this crime. This is because the internet provides a vast choice of suitable targets, and a low chance of being caught or tracked down due to lack of guardianship online. Thus, the motivated offender is likely to engage in cyber stalking as the routine activity theory explains (Pitarro, 2011). Cyber stalking Bocjj (2002) defines cyber stalking as: A group of behaviours in which an individual, group of individuals or organisation, uses information and communications technology to harass another individual, group of individuals or organisation. Such behaviours may include, but are not limited to, the transmission of threats and false accusations, damage to data or equipment, identity theft, data theft, computer monitoring, the solicitation of minors for sexual purposes and any form of aggression. There are three subcategories of cyber stalking: e-mail stalking, internet stalking, and computer stalking. E-mail stalking is the act of repetitively sending hate, obscene, or threatening mail, or in other cases involves the sending of viruses and electronic junk mail. This results in an unwelcome and intimidating invasion into private space. Internet stalking on the other hand goes rather public, since it consists of using the web in-order to stalk. Computer stalking is the act of using the internet and other software in-order to obtain control of the victims computer. In this type of stalking, the stalker communicates directly as soon as the target computer uses the internet, forcing the victim to disconnect and/or reconnect through a new line if s/he wants to evade the harassment (Ogilvie, 2000). Stalker characteristics, types, and motives The stalker may be on the other side of the earth, a neighbour, or even a relative. In addition, cyber stalkers are usually mature in age, have a good educational level, a stable job, and are usually Caucasian (Bocij McFarlane, 2002). Research literature also suggests that many cyber stalkers have a prior criminal record, a history of substance abuse, or a personality disorder that directly or partly contributes to, and increases the likelihood of, such antisocial behaviours (Pitarro, 2011, in Hutton Haantz, 2003; Reno, 1999). However, this does not mean that all cyber stalkers are like this, in fact the evidence is somewhat inconclusive. Different stalkers, engage in stalking for various reasons like for sexual harassment. Another motive could be the obsession for love. This occurs when one of the partners in a love relation decides to end it, the other does not accept it and thus continues to harass the other partner. One of the main problems with obsessional stalking is that since many times the stalking comes after a real relationship, the stalker has at ones disposal much of the information s/he needs about the victim. Revenge and hate is another major cause for stalking, and many times results after an argument that has gone out of hand. In this case, the stalker does not necessarily need to know the victim but could be just picking on him/her only to let out pent up stress. Finally, a stalker might just want to be able to show-off ones skills for ego boost and show of power (Cyber Crime in India, 2000). Types of stalkers include the rejected stalker, the intimacy seeker, the incompetent suitor, the resentful stalker, and the predatory stalker. Rejected stalkers are characterised by a mix of revenge and desire to reconcile with the victim who is usually a partner or a family member. Intimacy seekers on the other hand try to achieve a relationship with a person that can be a complete stranger and think s/he is reciprocating their affection. Incompetent suitors being socially incompetent try to build a relationship that goes against social courtship rules whilst predatory stalkers gather information in preparation for sexual attachment. Lastly, resentful stalkers specifically harass victims to cause fear and uneasiness as a form of revenge for a supposed humiliation (Mullen, Pathe, Purcell, Stuart, 1999). However, these are not the only types of stalkers. Other types include the delusional stalker, the erotomaniac stalker, the harasser, the love rat, and the trolls. Delusional stalkers many times suffer from a mental illness, usually schizophrenia or manic depression. These due to stoppage of medication may be unable to distinguish between reality and fantasy, and thus their victims are usually also in-danger of losing their sanity as a result of being taken into the stalkers world. This might occur if the stalker knows how to play the part well and appears to be normal. Erotomaniac stalkers are also mentally ill and build up a relationship in their heads. Although not specifically considered as stalkers, harassers are attention-seekers and might victimise anyone who is kind enough to give them attention. Love rats usually come up with a fictitious identity and surf the cyberspace with the intent to start a relationship although having other secret affairs. Trolls like to invent sense less stories/events that are meant to waste the victims time, hurt their feelings, and play victims against each other (Issues related to bullying, 2002). Impact of stalking on victims The victims of stalking are mainly picked because they might be inferior to the stalker, since many stalkers want to be in control (Regehr, n.d.). Victims are many times ex-partners of the stalker (especially if the stalker is a woman) although in cyber stalking 50% of the victims are complete strangers. The preferred victims of a cyber-stalker are women and children, who might be emotionally weak or unstable, but most of all those that are inexperienced with the rules of cyberspace (Thapa, Kumar, 2011). Furthermore, studies show that 83% of stalking victims are females, this mainly is because there are more females online, and many stalkers might seek romance with them. Then if the female ends the relationship, the male stalker may be left with the thirst for revenge. The typical victim is therefore a Caucasian female of between 18 to 32 years. Being part of a minority group such as ethnic/racial minorities, homosexuals, and religious minorities may also cause one to be targeted (T hapa, Kumar, 2011; McFarlane Bocij, 2003). Impacts on stalking victims can be physical, psychological, occupational, and social. It is important to note that although cyber stalking many times consists of the last three, escalation into offline stalking and face-to-face confrontation may cause physical injuries to occur. Victims constantly feel in danger of being attacked. This imposed fear is a result of the tactics that the stalker implements to harass his/her victim (Regehr, n.d.). Fear, anxiety, and apprehension nearing paranoia are the feelings which all victim share. Other victims show symptoms of anger, depression, and helplessness, which might lead to suicidal thoughts (McEwan, Mullen, Purcell, 2007). The victims become hyper vigilant to keep an eye out for the stalker and start to change their habitual routines. When easiness wears away and stress comes into play, the victims anxiety is heightened. S/he will start to be easily startled by minimum movements or noises. Both during the night and during the day, images of the stalker start to engulf the victims thoughts and dreams. The victim will eventually fall into self-reclusion by avoiding communication and by refraining from carrying out activities such as not answering calls or messages, and not venturing outside the house. Long-term stalking will result in further symptoms, this time physical. Sleep disturbances, nausea, upset stomachs, general fatigue, frequent headaches, and the aggravation of pre-existing conditions such as asthma may be also present (Regehr, n.d.). Pathe and Mullen (1997) conducted a study on 100 stalking victims. Damages to property ranging from cars to houses were reported in 36 of the studied cases. In addition to this, 50% of the cases consisted of threats in direct harm to the victims, or their families or friends. However, the victims were assaulted by the stalker in one-third of the cases. Findings also indicated that over 50% of the victims start to drop their attendance records from work or school, some even cease to attend at all. According to the National Violence Against Women Survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Justice (1998), 30% of female and 20% of male victims end-up seeking psychological counselling due to the trauma suffered during victimization (Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). Socially, the victims status is affected negatively especially due to poor attendance, or focus at work. This will eventually cause family or friends to intervene and accompany the victim, at work or at home. With time, the other persons involved, will show symptoms of anger since they are not able to return to their normal lives. This will cause further uneasiness because the anger that should be projected towards the criminal justice systems for being better equipped to counteract this crime is taken on the victim him/herself for being in their current situation (Regehr, n.d.). Laws, law enforcement and safety strategies There are various safety strategies that one can adopt to avoid being stalked. Choosing gender and age ambiguous usernames, not posting personal information online, not sharing passwords, downloading antispyware programs, locking windows and doors, parking cars in illuminated areas, avoiding habitual travelling patterns, and having meetings with unknown persons in public areas, may all minimise the possibility of becoming a victim (Petrocelli, 2005). If these methods are ineffective, victims should always tell the stalker that the communication is undesirable, keep record of any emails, telephone calls, and letters received, contact law enforcement agencies or victim support groups, and change email addresses and telephone numbers (Jaishankar Sankary, 2006). The most important advice is however to never confront the stalker as this will make matters worse. Unfortunately, incidents of stalking and cyber stalking are underreported. This may be due to various reasons such as not being aware that the acts suffered are illegal, the fear of being blamed, fear that the stalker may turn to other family members and friends, threats by the stalker, and believing that nothing can be done (MacKenzie, McEwan, Pathà ©, James, Ogloff, Mullen, 2011). In addition, according to Reno (1999), victims may not seek help because they feel either that certain behaviours suffered from stalking are not serious enough to be reported to law enforcement agencies, or they think that the police force will not take matters seriously. Furthermore, sometimes law enforcement agencies perceive cyber stalking as relatively harmless unless it involves physical contact or threatening behaviour offline, and thus many times just tell victims to switch off computers or abandon computer use and dismiss the victims preoccupations as nuisance (Reno, 1999). Sometimes however, it is not the police agencies fault since unlike in stalking, the evidence in cyber stalking is many times not enough to trace the perpetrator. In addition, many websites do not authenticate user information, and a number of email servers offer stalkers the opportunity to remove identity data for a small fee, thus making it almost impossible for law enforcement to trace the accounts (Reno, 1999). Nowadays, although many countries have set up law enforcement units to deal with cybercrime such as The Cybercrime Unit of the Malta Police Force, the laws still provide many limitations. Jurisdiction limitations make it difficult for law enforcement to investigate the crime if it involves suspects from other countries (Petrocelli, 2005). Another obstacle for the police force is that stalking in itself is not considered a crime under Maltese law and thus certain behaviour cannot be punished if it does not involve; threat, harassment, trespassing, vandalism, physical violence contact, or computer misuse. In addition for an action to be considered a crime, two elements must be present: actus reus and mens rea. Therefore, prosecutors must prove that the culprit had the intent to cause harm. Except for cases when the stalking is done on an ex-partner, this is difficult to prove (Dennison Thomson, 2002). As the technology continues to develop, so will crime such as cyber stalking. Thus since the Internet is becoming more and more integrated into almost every part of human life, simple solutions such as turning off computers will not solve the problem. Instead, the frequent training of law enforcement agencies and the continuous updating of laws will prove to be better countermeasures to such newly developed crimes. Citizens must also learn to protect themselves from the dangers of such crimes by attending educational talks and seminars, cooperating with criminal justice agencies, or even using the computer itself to keep updated with new trends so as to avoid becoming victims of crime.

Craft :: Art

Craft Art (à ¤rt)n.  · Human effort to imitate, supplement, alter, or counteract the work of nature. · The conscious production or arrangement of sounds, colors, forms, movements, or other elements in a manner that affects the sense of beauty, specifically the production of the beautiful in a graphic or plastic medium. Craft (kr ft)n.  · Skill in doing or making something, as in the arts; proficiency.  · To make by hand.  · To make or construct (something) in a manner suggesting great care or ingenuity. Craft, the word has been with man for ages. There are unique mysteries in life that are usually provoking the true nature of reality, as us humans become aware of it. The genealogy of a man is equal to the idea that the term "craft" has evolved so beyond the understanding of the human mind. A skill in the form of an advanced, detailed, or progressive (movement) in the ability to perform with great skill in one view of behavioral science cannot be determined by meaning alone. It is a difficult word to be defined. The term craft I would mainly determine to be defined as the assemblage of objects that has some sort of interconnection to art, but it depends on the complexity of what is being built. After doing the many projects in class I have many different views on how craft is defined. A good example that would sort of involves both, primitive art and art deco in a small sense. Some of the African statues that are carved would have some geometric designs, (which relates to the way in which the style of art deco slightly falls in) is that would sometimes mean something in its own way. A person who could be making it for any kind of reason would usually make these sculptures by hand. Using his or her tools to be cutting into the material so that they can successfully make something with such craftsmanship, worth looking at. That is craft. Something like a fireplace with a few different color tiles that make a minor design, I deeply hesitate to call art or craft because of the fact that it seems to be so simple and isn’t really hand crafted completely. That is just one example of art deco. When you look at the way some of the different buildings interior is made, in terms of the sculptures, paintings and furniture you may have a completely different view in what you think in your mind.

Food and Eating Essay

January 5 & 7 †¢ Hetherington, Kregg, Chapters 1-4 Cultivating Utopia Week 15 Case study: Growing organic Jan. 12 &14. †¢ Hetherington, Kregg, Chapters 5-8 Cultivating Utopia †¢ Exams handed back this week & Make up exam on Tuesday January 12, 1-3 pm Week 16Class and consumption Jan. 19 & 21. †¢ Roseberry, William. 1996. â€Å"The Rise of Yuppie Coffee and the Reimagination of Class in the United States,† American Anthropologist 98 (4). 762-775. (BLS). *Food basket assignment due on Thursday January 21st. Week 17 Gender, food & Community Jan. 26 & 28 †¢ Beardworth, Alan and Teresa Keil, â€Å"Food, family, and community† in Sociology on the Menu, London: Routledge, pp. 73-99. (On reserve) †¢ Allison, Anne, Chapter 15 â€Å"Japanese Mothers and Obentos†¦Ã¢â‚¬  in F & C Week 18Gender, food & the body. February 2 & 4 †¢ Bordo, Susan, Chapter 12 â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa: Psychopathology as the Crystallization of Culture† in F & C †¢ Parasecoli, Fabio, Chapter 13 â€Å"Feeding Hard Bodies: Food and Masculinities in Men’s Fitness Magazines† in F & C Week 19Race, ethnicity & food. Feb. 9 & 11 †¢ Williams-Forson, Psyche, Chapter 21, â€Å"More Than Just the ‘Big Piece of Chicken’: The Power of Race, Class and Food in American Consciousness† in F & C †¢ Nabhan, Gary Paul, Chapter 23 â€Å"Rooting Out the Causes of Disease: Why Diabetes is So Common Among Desert Dwellers† in F & C *Reading response due on Tuesday on either reading Week 20Nationalism & food Feb. 16 & 18 ââ€" ª Penfold, Steve, 2002, â€Å"Eddie Shack Was No Tim Horton†¦Ã¢â‚¬  in Food Nations, ed. W. Belasco and P. Scranton. New York: Routledge. Pp. 48-66. ââ€" ª Wilk, Richard, Chapter 19 â€Å"’Real Belizean Food’† †¦in F & C ââ€" ª Study Break –February 22-28th–Week 21Foundational approaches March 2 & 4 †¢ Barthes, Roland, Chapter 2. â€Å"Toward a Psychosociology of Contemporary Food Consumption† in F & C †¢ Là ©vi-Strauss, Claude, Chapter 3 â€Å"The Culinary Triangle† in F & C. Week 22Foundational approaches March 9 & 11 †¢ Douglas, Mary, Chapter 4 â€Å"Deciphering a Meal† in F & C †¢ Mintz, Sidney, â€Å"Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom† in Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom. Boston: Beacon Press. (On reserve) *Reading Response on either reading due on Tuesday. Week 23Foundational approaches March 16 &18 †¢ Harvis, Marvin, Chapter 5 â€Å"The Abominable Pig† in F & C †¢ Recommended: Beardsworth, Alan and Teresa Keil, â€Å"The mysterious meanings of meat† In Sociology of the Menu pgs. 193-217. (On reserve). Week 24 Mcdonaldization March 23 & 25 †¢ Ritzer, George, 2004 â€Å"An introduction to McDonaldization† in The McDonaldization of Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. pgs. 1-23. †¢ Yan, Yunxiang, Chapter 32 â€Å"Of Hamburger and Social Space†¦Ã¢â‚¬  in F & C * Reading Response on either reading due on Tuesday. Week 25 Challenging Mcdonaldization March 30 & April 1st. †¢ Leitch, Alison, Chapter 24 â€Å"Slow Food and the Politics of Pork†¦Ã¢â‚¬  in F & C †¢ Pilcher, Jeffrey, Chapter 25, â€Å"Taco Bell, Maseca, and Slow Food†¦Ã¢â‚¬  in F & C. Week 26Challenging Mcdonaldization April 6 & 8 †¢ Clark, Dylan Chapter 26, â€Å"Punk Foods† in F & C Course wrap up this week. *Final exam* will be scheduled during the exam period. Please plan accordingly. Have a great summer!

How to Calculate the 7 Cost Measures

There are many definitions relating to cost, including the following seven terms: Marginal costTotal costFixed costTotal variable costAverage total costAverage fixed costAverage variable cost The data you need  to  compute these seven figures  probably will come in one of three forms: A table that provides data on total cost and quantity producedA linear equation relating total cost (TC) and quantity produced (Q)A nonlinear equation relating total cost (TC) and quantity produced (Q) Following are definitions of the terms and explanations of how the three situations should be dealt with. Defining Terms of Cost Marginal cost  is the cost a company incurs when producing one more good. Suppose its producing two goods, and company officials would like to know how much costs would increase if production was increased to three goods. The difference is the marginal cost of going from two to three. It can be calculated thus: Marginal Cost (from 2 to 3) Total Cost of Producing 3 – Total Cost of Producing 2 For example, if it costs $600 to produce three goods and $390 to produce two goods, the difference is 210, so thats the marginal cost. Total cost  is simply all the costs incurred in producing a certain number of goods. Fixed costs  are the costs that are independent of the number of goods produced, or  the costs incurred when no goods are produced. Total variable cost is the opposite of fixed costs. These are the costs that change when more is produced. For instance, the total variable cost of producing four units is calculated thus: Total Variable Cost of Producing 4 units Total Cost of Producing 4 Units – Total Cost of Producing 0 units In this case, let’s say it costs $840 to produce four units and $130 to produce none. Total variable costs when four units are produced  is $710 since 840-130710.   Average total cost  is the total  cost over the number of units produced. So if the company produces five units, the formula is: Average Total Cost of Producing 5 units Total Cost of Producing 5 units / Number of Units If the total cost of producing five units is $1200, average total cost is $1200/5 $240. Average fixed cost  is fixed costs over the number of units produced, given by the formula: Average Fixed Cost Total Fixed Costs / Number of Units The formula for average variable costs is: Average Variable Cost Total Variable Costs / Number of Units Table of Given Data Sometimes a table or chart will give you the marginal cost, and youll need to figure the total cost. You can figure the total cost of producing two goods by using the equation: Total Cost of Producing 2 Total Cost of Producing 1 Marginal Cost (1 to 2) A chart will typically provide information regarding the cost of producing one good, the marginal cost  ,and fixed costs. Lets say the cost of producing one good is $250, and the marginal cost of producing another good is $140. The total cost would be $250 $140 $390. So the total cost of producing two goods is $390. Linear Equations Lets say you want to calculate marginal cost, total cost, fixed cost, total variable cost, average total cost, average fixed cost, and  average variable cost  when given a linear equation regarding total cost and quantity. Linear equations are equations without logarithms. As an example, let’s use the equation TC 50 6Q. That means the total cost goes up by 6 whenever an additional good is added, as shown by the coefficient in front of the Q. This means there is a constant marginal cost of $6 per unit produced. Total cost is represented by TC. Thus, if we want to calculate the total cost for a specific quantity, all we need to do is substitute the quantity for Q. So the total cost of producing 10 units is 50 6 X 10 110. Remember that fixed cost is the cost we incur when no units are produced. So to find the fixed cost, substitute in Q 0 to the equation. The result is 50 6 X 0 50. So our fixed cost is $50. Recall that total variable costs are the non-fixed costs incurred when Q units are produced. So total variable costs can be calculated with the equation: Total Variable Costs Total Costs – Fixed Costs Total cost is 50 6Q and, as just explained, fixed cost is $50 in this example. Therefore, total variable cost is (50 6Q) – 50, or 6Q. Now we can calculate total variable cost at a given point by substituting for Q. To find the average total cost (AC), you need to average total costs over the number of units produced. Take the total cost formula of TC 50 6Q and divide the right side to get average total costs. This looks like AC (50 6Q)/Q 50/Q 6. To get average total cost at a specific point, substitute for the Q. For example, average total cost of producing 5 units is 50/5 6 10 6 16. Similarly, divide fixed costs by the number of units produced to find average fixed costs. Since our fixed costs are 50, our average fixed costs are 50/Q. To calculate average variable costs, divide variable costs by Q. Since variable costs are 6Q, average variable costs are 6. Notice that average variable cost does not depend on quantity produced and is the same as marginal cost. This is one of the special features of the linear model, but it wont hold with a nonlinear formulation. Nonlinear Equations Nonlinear total cost equations are total cost equations that tend to be more complicated than the linear case, particularly in the case of marginal cost where calculus is used in the analysis. For this exercise, let’s consider the following two equations: TC 34Q3  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 24Q 9TC Q log(Q2) The most accurate way of calculating the marginal cost is with calculus. Marginal cost is essentially the rate of change of total cost, so it is the first derivative of total cost. So using the  two given equations for total cost, take the first derivate of total cost to find the expressions for marginal cost: TC 34Q3  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 24Q 9TC’ MC 102Q2  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 24TC Q log(Q2)TC’ MC 1 1/(Q2) So when total cost is 34Q3  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 24Q 9, marginal cost is 102Q2  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 24, and when total cost is Q log(Q2), marginal cost is 1 1/(Q2). To find the marginal cost for a given quantity, just substitute the value for Q into each expression. For total cost, the formulas are given. Fixed cost is found when Q 0. When total costs are 34Q3  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 24Q 9, fixed costs are 34 X 0 – 24 X 0 9 9. This is the same answer you get if you eliminate all the Q terms, but this will not always be the case. When total costs are Q log(Q2), fixed costs are 0 log(0 2) log(2) 0.30. So although all the terms in our equation have a Q in them, our fixed cost is 0.30, not 0. Remember that total variable cost  is found by: Total Variable Cost Total Cost – Fixed Cost Using the first equation, total costs are 34Q3  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 24Q 9 and fixed cost  is 9, so total variable costs are 34Q3  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 24Q. Using the second total cost equation, total costs are Q log(Q2) and fixed cost is log(2), so total variable costs are Q log(Q2) – 2. To get the average total cost, take the total cost equations and divide them by Q. So for the first equation with a total cost of 34Q3  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 24Q 9, the average total cost is 34Q2  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 24 (9/Q). When total costs are Q log(Q2), average total costs are 1 log(Q2)/Q. Similarly, divide fixed costs by the number of units produced to get average fixed costs. So when fixed costs are 9, average fixed costs are 9/Q. And when fixed costs are log(2), average fixed costs are log(2)/9. To calculate average variable costs, divide variable costs by Q. In the first given equation, total variable cost is 34Q3  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 24Q, so average variable cost is 34Q2  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 24. In the second equation, total variable cost is Q log(Q2) – 2, so average variable cost is 1 log(Q2)/Q – 2/Q.